The Ottoman Empire: a Historical Encyclopedia [2 Volumes]

  The Ottoman Empire

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  THE OTTOMAN

  EMPIRE

  A Historical Encyclopedia

  Volume 1

  Mehrdad Kia

  Empires of the World

  Copyright © 2017 by ABC-CLIO, LLC

  All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except for the inclusion of brief quotations in a review, without prior permission in writing from the publisher.

  Every reasonable effort has been made to trace the owners of copyright materials in this book, but in some instances this has proven impossible. The editors and publishers will be glad to receive information leading to more complete acknowledgments in subsequent printings of the book and in the meantime extend their apologies for any omissions.

  Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

  Names: Kia, Mehrdad, author.

  Title: The Ottoman Empire : a historical encyclopedia / Mehrdad Kia.

  Description: Santa Barbara, California : ABC-CLIO, 2017. |

  Series: Empires of the world | Includes bibliographical references and index.

  Identifiers: LCCN 2016047247 (print) | LCCN 2017006102 (ebook) |

  ISBN 9781610693882 (set : alk. paper) | ISBN 9781440846106 (volume 1 : alk. paper) |

  ISBN 9781440846113 (volume 2 : alk. paper) | ISBN 9781610693899 (ebook)

  Subjects: LCSH: Turkey—History—Ottoman Empire, 1288-1918—Encyclopedias.

  Classification: LCC DR485 .K54 2017 (print) | LCC DR485 (ebook) | DDC 956/.01503—dc23

  LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016047247

  ISBN: 978-1-61069-388-2 (set)

  978-1-4408-4610-6 (vol. 1)

  978-1-4408-4611-3 (vol. 2)

  EISBN: 978-1-61069-389-9

  21 20 19 18 17 1 2 3 4 5

  This book is also available as an eBook.

  ABC-CLIO

  An Imprint of ABC-CLIO, LLC

  ABC-CLIO, LLC

  130 Cremona Drive, P.O. Box 1911

  Santa Barbara, California 93116-1911

  www.abc-clio.com

  This book is printed on acid-free paper

  Manufactured in the United States of America

  To my mother, Kiadokht Kia; to my brother, Ardeshir Kia; and to my nephew,

  Cameron Kia Weix, for their love, generosity, and endless support.

  CONTENTS

  VOLUME 1

  Preface

  Note on Pronunciation, Transliteration, and Spelling

  Introduction

  Chronology

  Battles and Treaties

  Adrianople, Treaty of (1829)

  Amasya, Treaty of (1555)

  Ankara, Battle of (1402)

  Arab Revolt (1916–1918)

  Balfour Declaration (1917)

  Balkan Wars (1912, 1913)

  Bașkent (Bashkent), Battle of (1473)

  Chaldiran, Battle of (1514)

  Congress of Berlin (1878)

  Crimean War (1853–1856) and the Treaty of Paris (1856)

  Erzurum, Treaty of (1823)

  Erzurum, Treaty of (1847)

  Gallipoli (1354; 1915–1916)

  Greek War of Independence (1821–1832)

  Hünkār Iskelesi, Treaty of (1833)

  Jassy, Treaty of (1792)

  Karlowitz, Treaty of (1699)

  Kosovo, Battle of (1389)

  Küçük Kaynarca (Kuchuk Kaynarja), Treaty of (1774)

  Lausanne, Treaty of (1923)

  Lepanto, Battle of (1571)

  Marj Dabiq (Mercidabik), Battle of (1516)

  Mezőkeresztes, Battle of (1596)

  Mohács, Battle of (1526)

  Passarowitz, Treaty of (1718)

  Preveza, Battle of (1538)

  Qasr-i Shirin (Kasr-i Şirin), Treaty of (1639)

  Ridaniya, Battle of (1517)

  Sèvres, Treaty of (1920)

  Sistova, Treaty of (1791)

  Sykes-Picot Agreement (1916)

  Tulip Period (ca. 1718–ca. 1730)

  Beys and Pashas

  Abbas Hilmi (1874–1944)

  Ahmed Tevfik Pasha (1845–1936)

  Alemdar Mustafa Pasha (1765–1808)

  Āli Pasha, Mehmed Emin (1815–1871)

  Ali Pasha of Janina (Tepedelenli Ali Pasha) (1744–1822)

  Barbaros Hayreddin Pasha (d. 1546)

  Cemal Pasha (Jemal Pasha) (1872–1922)

  Enver Pasha (1881–1922)

  Fuad Pasha Keçecizade Mehmed (Kechejizade Mehmed) (1815–1869)

  Gāzi Ahmed Muhtar Pasha (1839–1919)

  Gāzi Osman Pasha (1832–1900)

  Gedik Ahmed Pasha (d. 1482)

  Ibrahim Pasha (Nevșehirli Damad; Nevșehirli Damad Ibrahim Pasha; Nevshehirli Damad Ibrahim Pasha) (1662–1730)

  Ibrahim Pasha (of Parga) (Pargali Ibrahim Pasha) (1493–1536)

  Köprülü Mehmed Pasha (d. 1661)

  Köprülüzade Fazil Ahmed Pasha (d. 1676)

  Mehmed Ali (Muhammad Ali) (1769–1849)

  Merzifonlu Kara Mustafa Pasha (d. 1683)

  Midhat Pasha (1822–1884)

  Mustafa Reșid Pasha (Mustafa Reshid Pasha) (1800–1858)

  Talat Pasha (1874–1921)

  Empire and Administration

  Abbas I, Shah of Iran (1571–1629)

  Administration, Central

  Administration, Provincial

  Atatürk, Kemal (Mustafa Kemal) (1881–1938)

  Devșirme (Devshirme)

  Eugene of Savoy (1663–1736)

  Eunuchs

  Gāzi

  Harem

  Ismail I, Shah of Iran (1487–1524)

  Janissaries

  Karim Khan Zand (ca. 1705–1779)

  Lawrence, T. E. (Lawrence of Arabia) (1888–1935)

  Muhtasib and Ihtisab

  Nader Shah Afshar (1688–1747)

  Nizam-i Cedid (Nizam-i Jedid)

  Ottoman Constitution

  Palace

  Palace Pages and Royal Chambers

  Safavid Dynasty

  Tanzimat

  Timur (1336–1405)

  Uzun Hassan (1423–1478)

  Historians, Writers, Poets, and Scholars

  Adivar, Halide Edib (also known as Halide Edib) (1883–1964)

  Ahmed Cevdet Pasha (Ahmed Jevdet Pasha) (1823–1895)

  Ahmed Vefik Pasha (1823–1891)

  al-Jabarti, Abd al-Rahman ibn Hassan (1753/1754–1825)

  Āșikpāșāzāde (Āshik Pāshāzāde) (1400–ca. 1484)

  Bāki (Bāqi) (1526–1600)

  Evliya Çelebi (Evliya Chelebi) (1608/1609/1611–1682/1684)

  Fuzuli (1480–1555/1556)

  Gökalp, Ziya (1876–1924)

  Ibrahim Peçevi (Ibrahim Pechevi) (1572/1574–1650)

  Ibrahim Şinasi (Ibrahim Shinasi) (1826/1827–1871)

  Idris-i Bitlisi (1455–1520)

  Kemal Pāşāzāde (Kemal Pāshāzāde) (1468–1536)

  Mustafa Naima/Mustafa Naim (1655–1716)

  Namik Kemal (1840–1888)

  Piri Reis (1465/1468/1470–1554)

  Sinan (1489–1588)

  Tevfik Fikret (1867–1915)
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  Yusuf Akçura (Yusuf Akchura; Akçuraoglu Yusuf) (1876–1935)

  Ziya Pasha (Abdülhamid Ziyaeddin) (1825/1826 or 1829/1830–1880)

  Peoples and Cultures

  Albania and Albanians

  Armenians

  Bosnia and Bosnians

  Bulgarians and the Bulgarian Orthodox Church

  Jews

  Kurds

  Moldavia

  Serbian Orthodox Church

  Wallachia

  Index

  VOLUME 2

  Popular Culture

  Bektaşi (Bektashi) Order

  Food and Dining

  Halveti Order

  Kadiris

  Mevlana Celaledin Rumi and the Mevlevi Order (Mevlevi Order of Dervishes)

  Naqshbandiyya Order (Naqshbandiyyeh)

  Nasreddin Hoca (Nasreddin Hodja)

  Sufi Orders

  Rebels, Reformers, and Revolutionaries

  Abd al-Qadir al-Jazairi (1808–1883)

  Abduh, Muhammad (1849–1905)

  Afghani (Assadabadi), Jamal al-Din (1838/1839–1897)

  Ahmed Riza (1859–1930)

  Hussein ibn Ali (1854–1931) and the Hussein-McMahon Correspondence (1915–1916)

  ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad (1703–1792)

  Ibn Saud Family

  Karadjordje (Kara George) (1762–1817)

  Skanderbeg (Gjergj [George] Kastrioti) (1405–1468)

  Tasvir-i Efkār (Representation of Opinions)

  Urabi, Ahmad Pasha (1840–1911)

  Young Turks

  Sultans of the Ottoman Empire

  Abdülaziz (1830–1876)

  Abdülhamid I (1725–1789)

  Abdülhamid II (1842–1918)

  Abdülmecid (Abdülmejid) (1823–1861)

  Ahmed I (1590–1617)

  Ahmed II (1643–1695)

  Ahmed III (1673–1736)

  Bayezid I (1360–1403)

  Bayezid II (1447–1512)

  Cem Sultan (Jem Sultan) (1459–1495)

  Ibrahim (1615–1648)

  Kösem Sultan (ca. 1589–1651)

  Mahmud I (1696–1754)

  Mahmud II (1784–1839)

  Mehmed I (1381–1421)

  Mehmed II (1432–1481)

  Mehmed III (1566–1603)

  Mehmed IV (1642–1693)

  Mehmed V Reşad (Reshad) (1844–1918)

  Mehmed VI (Mehmed Vahideddin) (1861–1926)

  Murad I (1326–1389)

  Murad II (1404–1451)

  Murad III (1546–1595)

  Murad IV (1612–1640)

  Murad V (1840–1904)

  Mustafa I (1591–1639)

  Mustafa II (1664–1703)

  Mustafa III (1717–1774)

  Mustafa IV (1779–1808)

  Orhan Gāzi (1281–1362)

  Osman I (Osman Gāzi) (1258–1326)

  Osman II (1604–1622)

  Osman III (1699–1757)

  Selim I (1465–1520)

  Selim II (1524–1574)

  Selim III (1761–1808)

  Süleyman I (the Magnificent) (1494–1566)

  Süleyman II (1642–1691)

  Primary Documents

  1.A Description of Topkapi Palace

  2.Of the Audience and Entertainment Given to Ambassadors

  3.Of the Persons Which Live in the Seraglio; and Chiefly of the Women, and Virgins

  4.Sultan Ahmed III at the Royal Parade

  5.Treaty of Peace and Frontiers: The Ottoman Empire and Persia (May 17, 1639)

  6.Lady Mary Wortley Montagu’s Accounts of Women in the Ottoman Empire

  7.Ottoman Terms of Peace Accepted by Russia at Pruth (July 10/21, 1711)

  8.A European Account of the Ottoman-Russian War of 1768–1774

  9.Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca (Kuchuk Kaynarja) (July 21, 1774)

  10.Çelebi Effendi’s Defense of Sultan Selim III’s Nizam-i Jadid (Nizam-i Cedid)

  11.Destruction of the Janissary Corps: Mahmud II’s Firman Abolishing the Janissary Corps (June 17, 1826)

  12.Noble Rescript of Gülhane (1839)

  13.Ottoman Constitution (December 1876)

  14.The Young Turk Revolution: The Second (1909) Constitution of the Ottoman Empire, Selected Articles

  15.McMahon-Hussein Correspondence of 1915: Sir Henry McMahon’s Second Note to the Sharif Hussein (October 24, 1915)

  16.Sykes-Picot Agreement of 1916

  17.Balfour Declaration (1917)

  18.Three Currents of Thought by Ziya Gökalp

  19.Charshees, Bedestans, and Bazaars

  20.Trade Guilds in the Ottoman Empire

  21.Hāns (Khāns) or Inns in the Late Ottoman Period

  22.Turkish Baths in the Late Ottoman Period

  Appendix: Rulers

  Glossary of Selected Terms

  Selected Bibliography

  About the Author

  Index

  PREFACE

  The Ottoman Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia is focused primarily on the major events and personages who played an important role in the political, social, cultural, and intellectual history of the Ottoman state from its establishment in the last decade of the 13th century to its fall after the end of World War I. The Ottoman Empire contained a mosaic of diverse ethnic, linguistic, and religious groups. Each group possessed its own history, culture, language, customs, and traditions. The population of the empire included Albanians, Arabs, Armenians, Bosnians, Bulgarians, Croatians, Greeks, Hungarians, Jews, Kurds, Romanians, Turks, Serbs, and many others. No account of the Ottoman Empire can therefore claim to be comprehensive unless it covers the history and cultures of all the peoples and communities who contributed to the diversity, growth, and prosperity of this vast and complex empire. The present volumes make no pretense of providing an all-inclusive synopsis of the Ottoman Empire’s history and culture. This encyclopedia is designed as an introductory outline, providing readers who might not have prior knowledge of or expertise on the subject with a broad overview and a general understanding of some of the main personages, events, and institutions in the rich history of the Ottoman Empire.

  The Ottoman Empire is designed as a research tool dedicated to the study of Ottoman history, culture, and civilization. Because no other encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire has been written for the use of high school and university students, this two-volume reference resource will fill a significant gap presently encountered by those who plan to study or research the history of the Middle East, North Africa, and southeast Europe from the second half of the 13th century to the first half of the 20th century. The Ottoman Empire will benefit not only high school and university students, but the general reader interested in Ottoman life, history, culture, and traditions. Because the present-day countries of southeast Europe, the Arab Middle East and North Africa, as well as Turkey were all parts of the Ottoman Empire for centuries, and they all emerged from its disintegration, it is critical for us to understand the history of this rich civilization and teach our students its important place and role in world history.

  The geographical focus of this encyclopedia is limited to regions, territories, and countries ruled by the Ottoman state. The time span covered extends from the establishment of the Ottoman state in the last decade of the 13th century to the collapse of the Ottoman Empire after World War I. The more than 160 entries are divided into the following eight topical categories:

  Battles and Treaties

  Beys and Pashas

  Empire and Administration

  Historians, Writers, Poets, and Scholars

  Peoples and Cultures

  Popular Culture

  Rebels, Reformers, and Revolutionaries

  Sultans of the Ottoman Empire

  Each entry contains cross-references broken down by topical category and a bibliography of relevant information resources. Also provided are 22 primary document selections illustrating Ottoman history. The text has also been supplemented with sidebars, illustrations, a chronology of major events, a gloss
ary of important terms, a bibliography of print resources suitable for both university undergraduate and high school student research, an appendix listing the sultans of the Ottoman Empire and the rulers of the Safavid dynasty, and a detailed subject index, making this encyclopedia a valuable addition to existing reference collections.

  NOTE ON PRONUNCIATION,

  TRANSLITERATION, AND

  SPELLING

  The multiplicity of languages used in the Ottoman Empire and the varieties of spelling that were adopted over centuries present a number of problems, making complete consistency impossible. With a few exceptions, I have used the modern Turkish spelling system. I have not, however, applied Turkish spellings and pronunciations to non-Turkish words. Thus, sharif (Arabic) has not been spelled as şerif (Turkish) or shah (Persian) as şah (Turkish).

  c (Turkish)

  j (English)

  ç (Turkish)

  ch (English)

  ö (Turkish)

  ö (German)

  ş (Turkish)

  sh (English)

  ü (Turkish)

  ü (German)

  INTRODUCTION

  The emergence of the Ottoman state as an empire with territory on three continents is one of the most important events in the history of the world. For nearly six centuries the Ottomans ruled a powerful state that held territory in the Balkans, the Middle East, and North Africa. The Ottoman state expanded from a small principality in western Anatolia in the last decade of the 13th century to one of the most powerful empires the world had ever seen. The Ottoman Empire was not only vast, but it also contained a mosaic of religious, ethnic, and linguistic communities, including Greeks, Serbs, Croatians, Bosnians, Hungarians, Albanians, Bulgarians, Romanians, Arabs, Turks, Armenians, Kurds, Jews, and many others. Each group possessed its own unique identity, history, culture, language, and traditions. The heterogeneity of the empire’s population required governmental institutions that would preserve the unity and territorial integrity of the state.

  The Ottoman state divided its subjects according to their relationship with the government. Those who worked for the government were called askeri (the military or the ruling class), and those who did not were the reāyā or the members of the subject class (Sugar: 33; Aksan: x–xi). The askeri comprised several strata. The first stratum was made up of the families who had fought alongside the first Ottoman sultans and had played an important role in transforming the state from a principality into a full-fledged empire. The second included the dynasties and ruling elites who had been conquered and then incorporated into the Ottoman system. The third encompassed those Christian subjects of the sultan who were recruited through devșirme (devshirme), the system by which young Christian boys were educated and trained to assume positions of power in the imperial palace, the army, and the administration. The fourth stratum was the ulema or the learned men of religion, a body of Muslim scholars who were recognized as the experts in Islamic law (Arabic: sharia; Turkish: şeriat). The ulema were responsible for administering the Islamic legal and educational institutions of the empire (Aksan: x–xi). Regardless of ethnic and religious origins, each member of the Ottoman ruling class had to demonstrate his loyalty to the sultan and his familiarity with the customs, mannerisms, and language that distinguished a member of the Ottoman ruling class from the members of the subject class. The reāyā also consisted of several strata, including peasant farmers, manufacturers, and merchants. The members of the subject class produced the goods and paid the taxes that sustained the state and the ruling dynasty (Aksan: x–xi).